Counterfeit Faith | Crystal Caudill

A Brief History of the Secret Service: Part 3 – The Challenges They Faced

Crystal Caudill — Mon, 20 Jul 2026 18:54:32 +0000

A Brief History of the Secret Service

“The detection of crime, when entered upon with an honest purpose to discover the haunts of criminals and protect society from their depredations by bringing them to justice, is held to be an honorable calling and worthy of commendation of all good men.”

– Hiram C. Whitley, Chief of the Secret Service, May 1869 – September 1874

Welcome to my series of blog posts revisiting my research on the Secret Service for my Hidden Hearts of the Gilded Age series. For the next few months, I’ll be posting about their history. At the end of each post, I’ll include my resources and links to the other posts. As each post goes live, the links will be updated.

Part 3: The Challenges They Faced

INTERNAL CHALLENGES:

The Secret Service was a federal organization, meaning its jurisdiction spread across the entire country. However, between 1875 and 1910, the division never employed more than 47 men, and the average was only 25. Between 1878 and 1893, when my stories takes place, the average number of servicemen was well below that.

In addition to being stretched thin, Secret Service operatives were subordinate to policing institutions. They did not have the authority to search for evidence or even arrest criminals without the cooperation of the local police authorities.

These two major issues, along with insufficient funds, could have crippled lesser men, but Secret Service Operatives were resourceful, determined, and loyal to their country.

EXTERNAL CHALLENGES

Counterfeiting was no accidental crime. It was committed purposefully, requiring skill, equipment, and a network of like-minded criminals. Like all criminals, counterfeiters did not want to be caught and did whatever they could to protect their criminal network. It wasn’t uncommon for them to grease the wheels of corrupt police officers, making it difficult as a Secret Service operative to determine who could be trusted.

Counterfeiters had fully developed criminal subcultures that were difficult to break into, and anyone could be a counterfeiter, from the lowly street peddler all the way up to the upper crusts of society. No income level was exempt from potential involvement. Even a sweet old grandma down the street could be the ring leader. Networks could stretch the width of the United States and relied on a decentralized underworld structure that transcended community boundaries.

Check out the Hidden Hearts of the Gilded Age Series

Can these four Secret Service Operatives catch the counterfeiters … without losing their hearts?

A Gilded Age Secret Service historical romance series, with mystery and suspense

Resources

While I’m not going to list all the resources I used in research for this story, I will leave you with a few of my favorites in case you want to research further.

Books

Illegal Tender by David R Johnson* (My personal favorite. It gives you a look at counterfeiters AND the Secret Service.)

The United States Secret Service by Walter S. Bowen and Harry Edward Neal

Freedom’s Detective: The Secret Service, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Man Who Masterminded America’s First War on Terror by Charles Lane

True Detective Stories by Andrew L. Drummond (Digital)

Excerpts from the History of the United States Secret Service, 1865-1975 by the United States Secret Service (Digital)

Digital Resources

The Secret Service’s Webiste

Secret Service Museum Tour (Closed to the Public – video)

The U.S. Secret Service: History and Missions by Shawn Reese Analyst in Emergency Management and Homeland Security Policy

ABOUT CRYSTAL CAUDILL

Crystal Caudill is the author of “dangerously good historical romance.” Her debut novel, Counterfeit Love, was a 2023 Carol Award finalist, and her novella, “Star of Wonder,” won the 2024 Christy Award for short form. She loves history, hot tea, all things bookish, and the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. She is a stay-at-home mom, caregiver, and chaos organizer. When she isn’t writing, Crystal can be found hanging with her family and playing board games at her home outside Cincinnati, Ohio. Find out more at crystalcaudill.com.

Connect with the author:

A Question for You:

What was your favorite fact shared today?

A Brief History of the Secret Service: Part 2 – The Making of an Operative

Crystal Caudill — Tue, 23 Jun 2026 12:00:03 +0000

A Brief History of the Secret Service

– Hiram C. Whitley, Chief of the Secret Service, May 1869 – September 1874

Part 2: The Making of an Operative

Operatives tended to have military, police, or detective experience and come from a law-abiding middle-class background. These men were successful in life prior to being appointed and often had a job history that indicated an ambition to do more.

Unlike their predecessors, they adapted their behavior to bureaucratic routines, followed orders, and obeyed rules. They were talented detectives, highly tolerant of paperwork, and committed to organizational goals.

They were a tough, capable, and honorable breed, with high standards of personal integrity, who felt it their duty to interact with criminals for the greater good of society.

THE DO’S AND DON’TS OF BEING AN OPERATIVE IN THE 1880S

“Employees will be judged by the character they sustain, by the results they accomplish, and by the manner in which they accomplish them.” – Elmer Washburn, Chief of the Secret Service 1874-1876

Avoid “any appearance of impropriety or disgraceful behavior.”

Criminals are not personal acquaintances; they are enemies of the social order.

Submit weekly reports to the director. They must include accounts of your actions and expenses every hour of every day.

Do not accept gifts or gratuities to perform or forgo official duties.

Do not deliver or give permission to use counterfeit money to any unauthorized person.

All arrests must be in strict conformity to civil law and with the cooperation of the local policing institution.

All financial transactions must be reported, even those involving criminals.

Report all criminal transactions: what was paid for counterfeit money, from whom it was purchased, where the deal was made, the kind of bogus money purchased, and how much counterfeit was obtained.

Record “all charges for information and assistance,” including names and residences of each person receiving these sums.

Purchasing counterfeit money must be done for the smallest, practical amount.

“Authority must be had from this Office before any bargain is made for information or assistance, unless the operative can clearly make it appear that the interest of the service would have suffered materially by the delay necessary, in order to obtain such authority.”

“Operatives will neither promise, either by word or implication, immunity from punishment, nor anything in mitigation of sentence, to any person for any offense he may have committed.”

Suspects must be warned about their rights – everything they say will be documented and used against them in court. Suspects needn’t answer any questions until a lawyer is obtained. (This was long before the Miranda Rights became required in 1966.)

Check out the Hidden Hearts of the Gilded Age Series

Can these four Secret Service Operatives catch the counterfeiters … without losing their hearts?

A Gilded Age Secret Service historical romance series, with mystery and suspense

Resources

While I’m not going to list all the resources I used in research for this story, I will leave you with a few of my favorites in case you want to research further.

Books

Illegal Tender by David R Johnson* (My personal favorite. It gives you a look at counterfeiters AND the Secret Service.)

The United States Secret Service by Walter S. Bowen and Harry Edward Neal

Freedom’s Detective: The Secret Service, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Man Who Masterminded America’s First War on Terror by Charles Lane

True Detective Stories by Andrew L. Drummond (Digital)

Excerpts from the History of the United States Secret Service, 1865-1975 by the United States Secret Service (Digital)

Digital Resources

The Secret Service’s Webiste

Secret Service Museum Tour (Closed to the Public – video)

The U.S. Secret Service: History and Missions by Shawn Reese Analyst in Emergency Management and Homeland Security Policy

ABOUT CRYSTAL CAUDILL

Connect with the author:

A Question for You:

What was your favorite fact shared today?

A Brief History of the Secret Service: Part 1 – The Early Days

Crystal Caudill — Sun, 14 Jun 2026 23:25:15 +0000

A Brief History of the Secret Service

– Hiram C. Whitley, Chief of the Secret Service, May 1869 – September 1874

Part 1: The Early Days

While many people today think of the Secret Service as primarily protecting the President, that duty did not actually become a part of their repertoire until 1894. Until 1902* it was conducted only informally and part-time, and even then, only two operatives were assigned full-time to the White House. So what did they do from their creation in 1865 until 1902, and beyond?

*Taken from the Secret Service’s website, as there are conflicting dates.

Counterfeiters Beware

It is estimated that one-third of the circulating U.S. currency was counterfeit during the Civil War. Until 1863, there was no national currency. Each state and bank had its own banknote design, making it an easy world for counterfeiters to thrive. Public confidence in a nation’s currency is critical to the health of the country’s economy, and the United States was in serious trouble. Even after the installation of a national currency in 1863, counterfeiters thrived. Only local police and occasional investigations by the War Department hampered counterfeiters.

On April 14th, 1865, Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCullough brought attention to the growing trouble of counterfeiting and insisted that a permanent, continuous, aggressive, organized effort was needed to thwart this menace to the economy. Abraham Lincoln agreed and authorized him to move forward. That same night, Abraham Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth. Despite the turmoil in the government that followed, on July 5, 1865, William P. Wood was sworn in as the first Chief of the U.S. Secret Service.

About 30 men made up this first group of Secret Service operatives. Headquarters were set up in Washington, and 11 field offices were established in cities throughout the country. A guide list of six “general orders” was issued*:

Each man must recognize that his service belongs to the government through 24 hours of every day.
All must agree to assignment to the locations chosen by the Chief and respond to whatever mobility of movement the work might require.
All must exercise such careful saving of money spent for travel, subsistence, and payments for information as can be self-evidently justified.
Continuing employment in the Service will depend upon demonstrated fitness, ability as investigators, and honesty and fidelity in all transactions.
The title of regular employees will be Operative, Secret Service. Temporary employees will be Assistant Operatives or Informants.
All employment will be at a daily pay rate; accounts submitted monthly. Each operative will be expected to keep on hand enough personal reserve funds to carry on Service business between paydays.

Taken from The United States Secret Service* by Warren S. Bowen and Harry Edward Neal.

Credentials were handwritten letters of appointment until an incident in 1871 forced them to reconsider an alternative. Ira W. Raymond waltzed into a field office posing as an operative and demanded all contraband be turned over to him. The operative on duty felt it odd that he wasn’t notified, and he telegrammed headquarters. Raymond was arrested, but this prompted Chief Whitley (the second Chief) to design and issue distinctive badges and printed credentials to all members of the Secret Service.

These badges were five-pointed, silver stars with lacework engraved into each point. “U.S. Secret Service” was stamped into the center of each. Operatives had $25 deducted from their paycheck for the badges, with the promise that it would be returned upon retirement when they turned in their badge. Each operative carried engraved and printed credentials called commissions from that point forward.

Unfortunately, the first two administrations of the Secret Service were fraught with scandal. As a result, a cloud hung over the division’s public image. Chief Washburn made some repairs to their reputation, but it was Chief James J. Brooks who really turned things around.

One of Chief Brooks’s first acts was to compile and issue the first formal manual of instructions for operatives. These were called “General Orders No. 4.” Under his reformation, the Secret Service was officially recognized as a division of the Treasury Department with its own budget, as limited as it was. Chief Brooks was a hard man and did not believe in vacations for his men. Any leave of absence was given without pay. But through his leadership, public opinion began to shift in a positive direction toward the Secret Service.

Check out the Hidden Hearts of the Gilded Age Series

Can these four Secret Service Operatives catch the counterfeiters … without losing their hearts?

A Gilded Age Secret Service historical romance series, with mystery and suspense

Resources

While I’m not going to list all the resources I used in research for this story, I will leave you with a few of my favorites in case you want to research further.

Books

Illegal Tender by David R Johnson* (My personal favorite. It gives you a look at counterfeiters AND the Secret Service.)

The United States Secret Service by Walter S. Bowen and Harry Edward Neal

Freedom’s Detective: The Secret Service, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Man Who Masterminded America’s First War on Terror by Charles Lane

True Detective Stories by Andrew L. Drummond (Digital)

Excerpts from the History of the United States Secret Service, 1865-1975 by the United States Secret Service (Digital)

Digital Resources

The Secret Service’s Webiste

Secret Service Museum Tour (Closed to the Public – video)

The U.S. Secret Service: History and Missions by Shawn Reese Analyst in Emergency Management and Homeland Security Policy

ABOUT CRYSTAL CAUDILL

Connect with the author:

A Question for You:

What was your favorite fact shared today?

Houses of Refuge

Crystal Caudill — Tue, 06 Jun 2023 09:00:52 +0000

Back to Bonus Content Back to Books

Initially, in my research for Counterfeit Faith, I began my studies looking at the history of orphanages intending for my story to be set there. However, during my research, I stumbled upon the concept of a House of Refuge. Having worked a summer during college at a camp for at-risk youth, my heart was immediately drawn to this setting and the stories of the children who were deemed juvenile delinquents. I had to know more, and you can read the results of that study in the story. However, like any historical novel, I couldn’t include everything I learned. So this is blog post is an attempt to give a brief overview of Houses of Refuge.

“To accomplish the work of reformation, it is essential that depraved children should be removed from the contaminating contact with wicked associates, both adult and juvenile, and transplanted to a purer and more health-inspiring moral atmosphere. Many of them have been roughly treated by the world, and should be looked upon ‘with a countenance more in sorrow than in anger.’ The light which guided them was not that of virtue, but the lurid glare springing from the polluted and deathly quagmires or society. If any man proud of his integrity and high social position should be tempted to look sternly on erring youth, he should reflect on what he might have been, if penury and ignorance had been the only endowments of his childhood.”

Thomas Budd upon the opening of the new White Female Department Building, January 20th, 1872

Why They Were Created

Prior to the early 1800s, convicted youths were confined to jails and penitentiaries with hardened criminals, regardless of the crimes or noncriminal behavior that placed them there. A child who had been picked up off the street for vagrancy may have been in the same cell as a man who had brutally murdered someone. Not only were they housed with adults, but the institutions were also overcrowded, many of them decrepit. It was a terrible situation that came under the notice of a social welfare movement.

Thomas Eddy and John Griscom organized the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, establishing the first House of Refuge in 1825. It was located in Manhattan, New York, and remained open until 1935. Many other institutions throughout the country followed suit, creating their our state or privately ran Houses of Refuge. These institutes were designed to house poor, destitute, and vagrant youth who were deemed by authorities to be on the path toward delinquency. In other words, Houses of Refuge were the predecessors to today’s juvenile justice system.

How Did a House of Refuge Work?

There were some varying differences from institution to institution, but in general, youths under the age of 21 who had been abandoned, convicted of a crime, or homeless could be referred to the institution through a judge or mayor for at least one year. Many of those children actually spent an indefinite amount of time in these institutions before being placed into indenture agreements, where the inmates would work and train under the supervision of their employer until they reached the age of 21. If a child could not be indentured in cases of mental physical infirmity or otherwise, they could be returned to friends (as they believed the parents were generally a bad influence on the children), sent to the almshouse (poorhouse), or otherwise “placed out.” Girls were trained in housewifery, sewing, washing, and cooking. Anything that went along with managing a house or serving in a house that could afford paid help. Boys were apprenticed sed to apprentice as farmers, printers, tanners, carpenters, blacksmiths, and shoemakers.

Indentured Locations May 1834

However, before children could reach this position of indentured service, they had to earn the right of relative freedom granted through such an agreement. When children were brought into the institutions, they were divided up by sex and then advanced through the following classes. (*This was the class system of the Philadelphia House of Refuge, but each institution had its own variant.)

About Division of Inmates

“The children shall be divided into eleven classes, class No. 10 being the lowest–advancing to No. 1–and the eleventh being the Class of Honor. When admitted, they shall be placed in Class No. 10, and be promoted (when deserving) monthly, until they have gone through the first ten classes, when they shall be placed in the Class of Honor. After they have been two months in that class, they shall be placed in charge of the Indenturing Committee: Provided, that nothing in this rule shall prevent the Board of Managers from discharging a child when it is obviously to the advantage of the child that he or she should not be longer retained.” – By-laws, Rules, & Regulations of the Board of Managers of the House of Refuge: Adopted 1876 (Philadelphia, PA)

An Inmate’s Day

The children’s days were highly regimented with a focus on moral, intellectual, and physical improvement. Days began at 5 am and went until an 8 pm bedtime. The children would labor for six to seven hours, have schooling for three hours, have 30 minutes for each meal, 30 minutes of devotional time, and three hours of recreational time–all of which was strictly supervised. The concept was that idle hands are the devil’s workshop. The children’s labor supported the operating expenses for the reformatory. You can see the items produced in 1834 by the Philadelphia House of Refuge below, as well as a sample schedule.

What Could Possibly Go Wrong?

The goal of a House of Refuge was to reform, educate, and provide a Christian moral foundation for inmates so that they could become productive and desired members of society. Unfortunately, like many institutions, Houses of Refuges had the best intentions but suffered from the same issues that plagued the adult facilities. Houses of Refuge quickly outgrew their capacity and became overcrowded, suffered from deteriorating conditions, and staff abuse. In 1876, the Philadelphia House of Refuge underwent a nine-day investigation into abuse. Members of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives “found that the board punished children by banning play, sending them to bed without supper, placing them in solitary confinement, and even imposing lashings. The board forced children to labor in institutional workshops six days a week without pay and, to make matters worse, thousands of dollars in profits from the goods produced went directly to the board. Despite the prevalence of punishments, the House committee deemed that the board’s actions were not abusive.” (The Encylopedia of Greater Philadelphia, “House of Refuge” by James Kopaczewski.)

By WWII, most, if not all, Houses of Refuge had either closed or restructured and changed their names or taken on the new concept of juvenile jails. You can still find private and state-ran boarding school situations for at-risk youth all over the country. While they hold many similarities to the Houses of Refuge of old, it is my hope they do not suffer from the same issues that plagued their predecessor.

So what are your thoughts on Houses of Refuge, reader? What questions do you have?

RESOURCES: (A Small sampling)

Budd, T. A. (n.d.). An address delivered at the opening of the new building of the White Female Department of the House of Refuge, January 20th, 1872. HathiTrust. https://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.rslvjr (Address given on January 20th, 1872.)

Henry, A., & Barclay, J. J. (1835, May 1). Annual report of the House of Refuge of Philadelphia. 7th. HathiTrust. https://hdl.handle.net/2027/umn.31951002246474k

Juvenile Justice History. Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice. (n.d.). https://www.cjcj.org/history-education/juvenile-justice-history

Kopaczewski, J. (2022, March 28). House of Refuge. Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia. https://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/essays/house-of-refuge/

New York State Archives. (1989). The Greatest Reform School in the world: A guide to the records of the New York House of Refuge. The Greatest Reform School in the World. https://www.archives.nysed.gov/sites/archives/files/res_topics_ed_reform.pdf

Philadelphia : Edmund Deacon’s Frankling Printing House. (1876, January 1). By-laws, rules and regulations of the Board of Managers of the House of Refuge : Adopted, January, 1876. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/bylawsrulesregul00hous/mode/2up

Pickett, R. S. (1969). House of Refuge: Origins of Juvenile Reform in New York State, 1815-1857. Syracuse University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv64h7hd

Teerters, N. K. (n.d.). The Early Days of the Philadelphia House of Refuge. https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/view/22729/22498

A Tour of 1880s Philadelphia

Crystal Caudill — Tue, 23 May 2023 09:00:40 +0000

Counterfeit Truth and Counterfeit Faith take place in Philadelphia, and while so much of the city has stayed the same, much of it has changed. In this tour, I’m sharing pictures of settings from Counterfeit Faith during my whirlwind two-day tour of Philadelphia. First off, did you know that Philadelphia is only two miles from river to river? I couldn’t believe how much they had cram-packed into that little space, but WOW. So, in reality, the majority of my story took place within two square miles. That really just blows my mind. So let’s take off.

Of course, Carpenters Hall was under construction when I went.

The Philadelphia Library, where Josiah first laid eyes on Gwendolyn as he came down those stairs.

Carpenters Hall is where we must start our tour because, of course, that is where Gwendolyn first starts out waiting for Mr. Farwell. You might have caught on to my intentional pun with his name if you’ve read the book. Poor Mr. Farwell must say farewell during the story, and I just couldn’t help myself. Nothing about Independence Park is the same as when Counterfeit Faith took place. In 1885, Carpenter Hall sat in the center of a city block surrounded by other businesses and buildings. There were a couple of alleys to access it, but there was no direct view. If you notice the cobblestone part of the walkway, that was approximately the size of the entrance between buildings to access Carpenters Hall.

It was while leaving this building that Josiah first laid eyes on Gwendolyn. It’s a good thing he did too, and more importantly, he noticed Quincy’s knife blade. It was at this location that everything was set into motion for two people to come together to rescue at-risk children, find love, and face more than their share of danger. For a woman who is used to being ignored or having to rescue herself, Josiah’s heroic intervention sets her heart aflutter and stirs dreams of romance that she’d long thought dead. Personally, I was a little giddy getting to stand on these steps and imagine the heroic rescue as it occurred. Of course, some of the buildings have been moved, and things don’t look 100% the way they did, but it was close enough to really enjoy the experience.

Houses that look like Josiah’s would have.

While the gorgeous houses on Arch Street described in the book no longer exist, I did see some houses that are similar in style. They’re larger than some of the other homes I found, and they had those stoops, shutters, and arched doorways that I was looking for. It was the best match I could find, and my mind relished imagining Josiah and Gwendolyn conversing on those steps.

Josiah worked for the Secret Service, which had offices in the unfinished City Hall building. When Josiah was there, the tower would not have been finished yet, nor would the giant William Penn statue have been on display. He worked in the judicial wing, and his office was hidden behind numbers without signage. He would have taken one of the sets of floating stairs to get to his floor of the building. These were such an architectural phenomenon that Wanamakers, the department store across the street, sold pamphlets and tours to show off those stairs. As you can see below, no supports are beneath it, just solid pieces of granite worked into the wall. Originally I had Josiah nervous to walk on them, but after having walked them myself, I knew Josiah wouldn’t have had a problem. They are so beautiful and fascinating I had to include pictures of all three views of the stairs.

Going back to Wanamaker. I don’t know if you caught it in the story, but Wanamaker’s was the department store where Gwendolyn’s mother and aunt worked. It was one of the first of its kind, offering set prices, return policies, various departments, artwork as fine as you would find in a gallery, and service for all levels of customers. Wanamaker was a brilliant man who helped to change the way people shopped. No more dickering and haggling over prices. Everyone paid the same price for the same item. Wanamaker’s no longer exists, but the store is now a Macy’s. Believe it or not, Wanamaker made the bold move of buying a former train station to turn it into his department store. I’m not sure if this location was the original train station location, but it’s definitely taller than it would have been in 1885. Those other floors were added later.

I’ll end my tour with a nod to Felicity from Counterfeit Truth. One of my big goals of this trip was to eat a Philadelphia pretzel . . . but apparently, they aren’t as big now as they were during Felicity’s time. The ONE pretzel I found was a sore disappointment that had to be rectified by going to my favorite pretzel place when I got home. However, the Reading Market (I think?) DID have some chocolate ice cream for me to sample from Bassetts that I must heartily agree is amazing. The whole time I ate that giant cone, I thought of Felicity eating ice cream with Mr. Cochran. If you haven’t read that book yet, you can download a free copy by joining my newsletter or purchasing it on Amazon.

Counterfeit Faith | Crystal Caudill

A Brief History of the Secret Service: Part 3 – The Challenges They Faced

A Brief History of the Secret Service

Part 3: The Challenges They Faced

INTERNAL CHALLENGES:

EXTERNAL CHALLENGES

Check out the Hidden Hearts of the Gilded Age Series

Can these four Secret Service Operatives catch the counterfeiters … without losing their hearts?

Read more about the Secret Service’s History

Resources

Books

Digital Resources

ABOUT CRYSTAL CAUDILL

A Question for You:

What was your favorite fact shared today?

A Brief History of the Secret Service: Part 2 – The Making of an Operative

A Brief History of the Secret Service

Part 2: The Making of an Operative

THE DO’S AND DON’TS OF BEING AN OPERATIVE IN THE 1880S

Check out the Hidden Hearts of the Gilded Age Series

Can these four Secret Service Operatives catch the counterfeiters … without losing their hearts?

Read more about the Secret Service’s History

Resources

Books

Digital Resources

ABOUT CRYSTAL CAUDILL

A Question for You:

What was your favorite fact shared today?

A Brief History of the Secret Service: Part 1 – The Early Days

A Brief History of the Secret Service

Part 1: The Early Days

*Taken from the Secret Service’s website, as there are conflicting dates.

Counterfeiters Beware

*Taken from The United States Secret Service by Warren S. Bowen and Harry Edward Neal.

Check out the Hidden Hearts of the Gilded Age Series

Can these four Secret Service Operatives catch the counterfeiters … without losing their hearts?

Read more about the Secret Service’s History

Resources

Books

Digital Resources

ABOUT CRYSTAL CAUDILL

A Question for You:

What was your favorite fact shared today?

Houses of Refuge

Why They Were Created

How Did a House of Refuge Work?

An Inmate’s Day

What Could Possibly Go Wrong?

So what are your thoughts on Houses of Refuge, reader? What questions do you have?

RESOURCES: (A Small sampling)

A Tour of 1880s Philadelphia

Taken from The United States Secret Service* by Warren S. Bowen and Harry Edward Neal.